Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. Following the initial rush, users experience 46 hours of going on the nod, alternating between conscious and semiconscious states. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Watch this, Sleep, which we all experience, is a quiet and mysterious pause in our daily lives. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. For example, repeated use can lead to overall depletion among the monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin). In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. Acircadian rhythmis a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, her infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms collectively called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. Complications. Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist, so caffeine inhibits the adenosine receptors, thus decreasing sleepiness and promoting wakefulness. His children and his wifes parents all agreed that Falater had an excellent relationship with his wife and they couldnt think of a reason that would provide any sort of motive to murder her (Cartwright, 2004). These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. Generally, alcohol is associated with decreases in reaction time and visual acuity, lowered levels of alertness, and reduction in behavioral control. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse consequences. As discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. They were ALL my fault. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. The prevalence rates for somatic disorders are often difficult to determine; however, overall estimates of somatic symptom disorder are around 4-6%. When we do this, we often experience jet lag. The low cost coupled with lower risk of overdose than with opiate drugs is making crystal meth a popular choice among drug users today (NIDA, 2019). Historically, somnambulism has been treated with a variety of pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to antidepressants. In Hilgards experiments, he induced participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice water. Increased prescriptions led to greater rates of misuse, along with greater incidence of addiction, even among patients who used these drugs as prescribed. To date, people have used a variety ofnicotinereplacement therapies in addition to various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use of tobacco products. Feeling tired. Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. Instead, sleep is composed of several different stages that can be differentiated from one another by the patterns of brain wave activity that occur during each stage. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. As one of their mechanisms of action, cocaine and amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse into the presynaptic cell. The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). For example, most people sleep during the night and are awake during the day. We might also experience unconscious states of being via drug-induced anesthesia for medical purposes. The hypnogram below (Figure 4.12) shows a persons passage through the stages of sleep. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices (Figure 4.21), but their use has grown in popularity among practitioners of alternative medicine. c. deaths due to accidents have increased. This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). Devices like this are designed to provide exposure to bright light to help people maintain a regular circadian cycle. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. The decade from 20102019 brought many changes in laws regarding marijuana. Historically, heroin has been a major opioid drug of abuse (Figure 4.17). d. both b and c. 2. Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai, Chen, & Hsu, 2013). Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. As we grow older, we sleep less. As the dose increases, people report feeling sedated. For example, body temperature fluctuates cyclically over a 24-hour period (Figure 4.2). Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). Hypnosis in conjunction with other techniques is used for a variety of therapeutic purposes and has shown to be at least somewhat effective for pain management, treatment of depression and anxiety, smoking cessation, and weight loss (Alladin, 2012; Elkins, Johnson, & Fisher, 2012; Golden, 2012; Montgomery, Schnur, & Kravits, 2012). Loss of appetite. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). While this is an intuitive explanation of sleep, there is little research that supports this explanation. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). How does hypnosis work? It may surprise you to know that sleep deprivation is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels of stress hormones, and reduced immune functioning (Banks & Dinges, 2007). Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. While caffeine may have some indirect effects on dopamine neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing adenosine activity (Porkka-Heiskanen, 2011). Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. Table 4.1shows the new recommendations, which describe sleep durations that are recommended, may be appropriate, and not recommended. Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep. For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). While there is tremendous variation in any given individuals sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a night) and that this amount declines to just 79 hours by the time we are adults. The internal state of an object is the set of all its attributes' values. Bloating or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. There was a significant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). Jet lag is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. Social programs like Medicare: a - offer health coverage for the older adults 24. The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time) (Roth, 2007). Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. Once she was able to limit her use to less than 12 ounces of soda a day, both her mental and physical health gradually improved. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. . The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. Early versions of this theory proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations of angst proposed by Freud and others, but were rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of (synthesize) the neural activity (activation) that was happening during REM sleep. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dreams content (LaBerge, 1990). In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. Other drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine, have also been used to alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. In the central nervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). Drugwithdrawalincludes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. The consequences of sleep debt include decreased levels of alertness and mental efficiency. However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. Diarrhea. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. 23. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways. Sore throat. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. Causes. The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. In Falaters case, a jury found him guilty of first degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however, there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been used successfully. Variations and adaptations in cognition and behavior make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing their genes to their offspring. While "internal state" or impulsivity are terms more generally discussed in psychology or neuroscience, the concept is familiar to anyone. All of the following are true statements concerning the health of Americans EXCEPT: a. mortality rates from smoking have declined. Opioid addiction reached crisis levels in the United States such that by 2019, an average of 130 people diedeach dayof an opioid overdose (NIDA, 2019). By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea (McDaid et al., 2009). It may feel like alcohol helps you sleep, but it actually disrupts REM sleep and leads to frequent awakenings. Not able to pass stool or gas. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. The heart rate slows . Weakness and fatigue. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. This chart illustrates the circadian change in body temperature over 28 hours in a group of eight young men. These initiatives include increasing access to treatment and recovery services, increasing access to overdose-reversal drugs like Naloxone, and implementing better public health monitoring systems (NIDA, 2019). 0. Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. This section will consider these questions and explore various explanations for why we sleep. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. She indicated that she had fallen asleep at inappropriate or dangerous times, including while eating, while socializing with friends, and while driving her car. These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. (a) Delta waves, which are low frequency and high amplitude, characterize (b) slow-wave stage 3 and stage 4 sleep.
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